Learning-to-Earning: Mapping Technical and Vocational Education and Training and Skills Evidence
The reasons for global youth unemployment are complex and multifaceted. A promising area of development programming is technical and vocational education and skills training (TVET), which bridges the gap between education and employment. To support more effective investments in this space, 3ie, in partnership with FCDO, is mapping and synthesizing evidence on TVET policies, programs, and projects in low- and middle-income countries.
Our research identifies strong evidence on labor market outcomes such as employment and earnings, while highlighting major gaps in emerging areas, including green skills, AI-related training, and system-strengthening interventions. The Evidence Gap Map findings offer a roadmap for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers seeking to improve young people’s transition from learning to earning.
This blog lays out the second phase of our project in which we search for, map, and categorize the evidence base of impact evaluations, systematic reviews and cost-evidence. This builds on our earlier work, published in 2025, in which we developed a framework for TVET and skills interventions, as well as their related labor market outcomes. Our evidence gap map (EGM) provides the first comprehensive overview of rigorous evidence on technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and skills interventions across low- and middle-income countries.
Discover the first output of 3ie’s global initiative with FCDO, focusing on TVET in low- and middle-income countries (L&MICs). This framework report categorizes interventions that support youth transitions from education to employment across five key areas: availability, access, quality, delivery, and supplementary services. Based on literature and expert input, it also includes a rapid scoping, using 3ie’s Development Evidence Portal, that reveals gaps in the current landscape and calls for more research into scalable, cost-effective solutions.
Phase 2 | Mapping learning-to-earning pathways: An evidence gap map
Youth unemployment remains a persistent challenge across low- and middle-income countries (L&MICs), with the number of young people not in employment, education or training (NEET) remaining stagnant in recent years. At the same time, the green energy transition and advances in artificial intelligence are reshaping labour markets and creating demand for new skills. However, investment in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) has not kept pace with these changing needs, making it critical to understand what works in preparing young people for the future of work.
To address this gap, 3ie, in partnership with FCDO, developed the first comprehensive Evidence Gap Map (EGM) on TVET and skills in L&MICs. Drawing on 510 impact evaluations and 17 systematic reviews, the EGM systematically maps the evidence on supply-side learning-to-earning interventions and labour market outcomes. The map highlights substantial evidence on TVET programmes linked to employment and income outcomes, while identifying important gaps in system-strengthening interventions, green skills, AI-related training, and countries with high NEET rates. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, practitioners and researchers seeking to strengthen TVET systems and prioritise future investments in evidence generation.
Phase 1 | Preliminary framework and scoping
Our multi-phase initiative, in partnership with FCDO, aims to improve the evidence base for technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in L&MICs. We have produced a preliminary framework that categorizes “learning to earning” interventions—programs, policies, and projects that support youth transitions from education to employment—into five key areas: availability, access, quality, delivery, and supplementary services.
The framework was developed through a structured literature review, expert consultations, and thematic synthesis. We reviewed existing typologies, examined causal pathways, and identified barriers to effective TVET implementation. Consultations with policymakers, funders, and academic experts further refined the framework’s structure and relevance.
Through a rapid scoping using 3ie’s Development Evidence Portal, we have identified 91 impact evaluations and 13 systematic reviews relevant to TVET. We find significant regional disparities, limited mixed-methods use, and a lack of cost-effectiveness analysis in the existing evidence. Notably, only one high-confidence systematic review focused primarily on TVET, underscoring the need for stronger synthesis to support decision-making.
This framework report lays the foundation for future outputs, including an evidence gap map and a comparative effectiveness systematic review. Both will aim to identify scalable, cost-effective “best buys” and advance evidence-informed policymaking in the global TVET sector.
